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Contents

About the Author Acknowledgments Preface To the Student-How to Use SPSS With This Book P.1 Overview of SPSS: What Are You Looking At? P.2 Preview of SPSS in Focus SECTION I. SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY Chapter 1. Introduction to Scientific Thinking 1.1 Science as a Method of Knowing 1.2 The Scientific Method 1.3 Other Methods of Knowing 1.4 The Goals of Science 1.5 Approaches in Acquiring Knowledge 1.6 Distinguishing Science From Pseudoscience Chapter 2. Generating Testable Ideas 2.1 Generating Interesting and Novel Ideas 2.2 Converting Ideas to Hypotheses and Theories 2.3 Developing Your Idea: Deduction and Induction 2.4 Performing a Literature Review 2.5 Ethics in Focus: Giving Proper Credit 2.6 The "3 Cs" of an Effective Literature Review 2.7 Testing Your Idea: Confirmation and Disconfirmation 2.8 Ethics in Focus: Publication Bias Chapter 3. Research Ethics 3.1 Ethics in Behavioral Research 3.2 The Need for Ethics Committees in Research: A Historical Synopsis 3.3 Ethics in Focus: Examples From Psychology 3.4 Human Participant Research: IRBs and the APA Code of Conduct 3.5 Ethics in Focus: Anonymity and Confidentiality 3.6 Animal Subject Research: IACUCs and the APA Code of Conduct 3.7 Additional Ethical Considerations: Scientific Integrity SECTION II. DEFINING AND MEASURING VARIABLES, SELECTING SAMPLES, AND CHOOSING AN APPROPRIATE RESEARCH DESIGN Chapter 4. Identifying Scientific Variables 4.1 Criteria for Defining and Measuring Variables 4.2 Constructs and Operational Definitions 4.3 Types of Variables 4.4 Scales of Measurement 4.5 Reliability of a Measurement 4.6 Validity of a Measurement 4.7 Selecting a Measurement Procedure 4.8 Ethics in Focus: Replication as a Gauge for Fraud? 4.9 SPSS in Focus: Entering and Coding Data Chapter 5. Sampling From Populations 5.1 Why Do Researchers Select Samples? 5.2 Subjects, Participants, and Sampling Methods 5.3 Methods of Sampling: Nonprobability Sampling 5.4 Methods of Sampling: Probability Sampling 5.5 Sampling Error and Standard Error of the Mean 5.6 SPSS in Focus: Estimating the Standard Error of the Mean 5.7 Potential Biases in Sampling 5.8 Ethics in Focus: Participant Pools 5.9 SPSS in Focus: Identifying New Populations Using the One-Sample t Test Chapter 6. Choosing a Research Design 6.1 Designing a Study to Answer a Question 6.2 Categories of Research Design 6.3 Internal and External Validity 6.4 Demonstrating Cause in an Experiment 6.5 Ethics in Focus: Beneficence and Random Assignment 6.6 Threats to the Internal Validity of a Research Study 6.7 Threats to the External Validity of a Research Study 6.8 External Validity, Experimentation, and Realism 6.9 A Final Thought on Validity and Choosing a Research Design SECTION III. NONEXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS Chapter 7. Naturalistic, Qualitative, and Existing Data Research Designs Naturalistic Observation 7.1 An Overview of Naturalistic Observation 7.2 The Research Setting: Natural and Contrived Settings 7.3 Techniques for Conducting Naturalistic Observation 7.4 Ethics in Focus: Influencing Participant Behavior Qualitative Designs 7.5 An Overview of Qualitative Designs 7.6 Qualitative Research Designs 7.7 Ethics in Focus: Anonymity in Qualitative Research Existing Data Designs 7.8 An Overview of Existing Data Designs 7.9 Existing Data Designs 7.10 Ethics in Focus: Existing Data and Experimenter Bias Chapter 8. Survey and Correlational Research Designs Survey Designs 8.1 An Overview of Survey Designs 8.2 Types of Survey Items 8.3 Rules for Writing Survey Items 8.4 Administering Surveys 8.5 Surveys, Sampling, and Nonresponse Bias 8.6 Ethics in Focus: Handling and Administering Surveys Correlational Designs 8.7 The Structure of Correlational Designs 8.8 Describing the Relationship Between Variables 8.9 Limitations in Interpretation 8.10 Correlation, Regression, and Prediction 8.11 SPSS in Focus: Correlation and Linear Regression SECTION IV. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS Chapter 9. Quasi-Experimental and Single-Case Experimental Designs Quasi-Experimental Designs 9.1 An Overview of Quasi-Experimental Designs 9.2 Quasi-Experimental Design: One-Group Designs 9.3 Quasi-Experimental Design: Nonequivalent Control Group Designs 9.4 Quasi-Experimental Design: Time Series Designs 9.5 Quasi-Experimental Design: Developmental Designs 9.6 Ethics in Focus: Development and Aging Single-Case Experimental Designs 9.7 An Overview of Single-Case Designs 9.8 Single-Case Baseline-Phase Designs 9.9 Validity, Stability, Magnitude, and Generality 9.10 Ethics in Focus: The Ethics of Innovation Chapter 10. Between-Subjects Experimental Designs 10.1 Conducting Experiments: Between-Subjects Design 10.2 Experimental Versus Control Group 10.3 Manipulation and the Independent Variable 10.4 Variability and the Independent Variable 10.5 Ethics in Focus: The Accountability of Manipulation 10.6 Comparing Two Independent Samples 10.7 SPSS in Focus: Two-Independent-Sample t Test 10.8 Comparing Two or More Independent Samples 10.9 SPSS in Focus: One-Way Between-Subjects ANOVA 10.10 Measuring the Dependent Variable 10.11 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Between-Subjects Design Chapter 11. Within-Subjects Experimental Designs 11.1 Conducting Experiments: Within-Subjects Design 11.2 Controlling Time-Related Factors 11.3 Ethics in Focus: Minimizing Participant Fatigue 11.4 Individual Differences and Variability 11.5 Comparing Two Related Samples 11.6 SPSS in Focus: Related-Samples t Test 11.7 Comparing Two or More Related Samples 11.8 SPSS in Focus: One-Way Within-Subjects ANOVA 11.9 An Alternative to Pre-Post Designs: Solomon Four-Group Design 11.10 Comparing Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects Designs Chapter 12. Factorial Experimental Designs 12.1 Testing Multiple Factors in the Same Experiment 12.2 Selecting Samples for a Factorial Design in Experimentation 12.3 Types of Factorial Designs 12.4 Ethics in Focus: Participant Fatigue and Factorial Designs 12.5 Main Effects and Interactions 12.6 Identifying Main Effects and Interactions in a Graph 12.7 Including Quasi-Independent Factors in an Experiment 12.8 Reasons for Including Two or More Factors in an Experiment 12.9 Higher-Order Factorial Designs 12.10 SPSS in Focus: General Instructions for Conducting a Factorial ANOVA SECTION V. ANALYZING, INTERPRETING, AND COMMUNICATING RESEARCH DATA Chapter 13. Analysis and Interpretation: Exposition of Data 13.1 Descriptive Statistics: Why Summarize Data? 13.2 Frequency Distributions: Tables and Graphs 13.3 Measures of Central Tendency 13.4 Measures of Variability 13.5 SPSS in Focus: Central Tendency and Variability 13.6 Graphing Means and Correlations 13.7 Using Correlation to Describe Reliability 13.8 SPSS in Focus: Cronbach's Alpha and Cohen's Kappa 13.9 Ethics in Focus: Deception Due to the Distortion of Data Chapter 14. Analysis and Interpretation: Making Decisions About Data 14.1 Inferential Statistics: What Are We Making Inferences About? 14.2 Types of Error and Power 14.3 Parametric Tests: Applying the Decision Tree 14.4 Nonparametric Tests: Applying the Decision Tree 14.5 SPSS in Focus: The Chi-Square Tests 14.6 Effect Size: How Big Is an Effect in the Population? 14.7 Estimation: What Are the Possible Values of a Parameter? 14.8 Confidence Intervals, Significance, and Effect Size 14.9 Issues for Interpretation: Precision and Certainty 14.10 Ethics in Focus: Full Disclosure of Data Chapter 15. Communicating Research: Preparing Manuscripts, Posters, and Talks 15.1 Elements of Communication 15.2 Writing a Manuscript: Writing Style and Language 15.3 Elements of an APA-Style Manuscript 15.4 Literature Reviews 15.5 Reporting Observations in Qualitative Research 15.6 Ethics in Focus: Credit and Authorship 15.7 Presenting a Poster 15.8 Giving a Professional Talk Appendix A: APA-Style Writing, Sample Manuscript, and Posters A.1 Essentials for Writing APA-Style Research Papers A.2 Grammar, Punctuation, and Spelling (GPS) Writing Guide A.3 Sample APA-Style Manuscript A.4 Poster Template and Sample Poster Appendix B: Instructions for Randomizing and Counterbalancing B.1 Random Numbers Table B.2 Constructing a Latin Square Appendix C: SPSS General Instructions Guide and Statistical Tables C.1 General Instructions Guide for Using SPSS C.2 Statistical Tables Glossary References Index

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